Part I
Every state is a community of some kind, and every community is es-
tablished with a view to some good; for mankind always act in order to
obtain that which they think good. But, if all communities aim at some
good, the state or political community, which is the highest of all, and
which embraces all the rest, aims at good in a greater degree than any
other, and at the highest good.
Some people think that the qualifications of a statesman, king, house-
holder, and master are the same, and that they differ, not in kind, but
only in the number of their subjects. For example, the ruler over a few is
called a master; over more, the manager of a household; over a still
larger number, a statesman or king, as if there were no difference be-
tween a great household and a small state. The distinction which is made
between the king and the statesman is as follows: When the government
is personal, the ruler is a king; when, according to the rules of the politi-
cal science, the citizens rule and are ruled in turn, then he is called a
statesman.
But all this is a mistake; for governments differ in kind, as will be
evident to any one who considers the matter according to the method
which has hitherto guided us. As in other departments of science, so in
politics, the compound should always be resolved into the simple ele-
ments or least parts of the whole. We must therefore look at the elements
of which the state is composed, in order that we may see in what the
different kinds of rule differ from one another, and whether any scien-
tific result can be attained about each one of them.
Part II
He who thus considers things in their first growth and origin, whether a
state or anything else, will obtain the clearest view of them. In the first
place there must be a union of those who cannot exist without each
other; namely, of male and female, that the race may continue (and this
is a union which is formed, not of deliberate purpose, but because, in
common with other animals and with plants, mankind have a natural
desire to leave behind them an image of themselves), and of natural
ruler and subject, that both may be preserved. For that which can fore-
see by the exercise of mind is by nature intended to be lord and master,
and that which can with its body give effect to such foresight is a sub-
ject, and by nature a slave; hence master and slave have the same inter-
est. Now nature has distinguished between the female and the slave. For
she is not n***ardly, like the smith who fashions the Delphian knife for
many uses; she makes each thing for a single use, and every instrument
is best made when intended for one and not for many uses. But among
barbarians no distinction is made between women and slaves, because
there is no natural ruler among them: they are a community of slaves,
male and female. Wherefore the poets say,
“It is meet that Hellenes should rule over barbarians;”
as if they thought that the barbarian and the slave were by nature one.
Out of these two relationships between man and woman, master
and slave, the first thing to arise is the family, and Hesiod is right when
he says,
“First house and wife and an ox for the plough,”
for the ox is the poor man's slave. The family is the a**ociation estab-
lished by nature for the supply of men's everyday wants, and the mem-
bers of it are called by Charondas ‘companions of the cupboard,' and
by Epimenides the Cretan, ‘companions of the manger.' But when sev-
eral families are united, and the a**ociation aims at something more
than the supply of daily needs, the first society to be formed is the vil-
lage. And the most natural form of the village appears to be that of a
colony from the family, composed of the children and grandchildren,
who are said to be s**led ‘with the same milk.' And this is the reason
why Hellenic states were originally governed by kings; because the Hellenes were under royal rule before they came together, as the barbar-
ians still are. Every family is ruled by the eldest, and therefore in the
colonies of the family the kingly form of government prevailed because
they were of the same blood. As Homer says:
“Each one gives law to his children and to his wives.”
For they lived dispersedly, as was the manner in ancient times.
Wherefore men say that the Gods have a king, because they themselves
either are or were in ancient times under the rule of a king. For they
imagine, not only the forms of the Gods, but their ways of life to be like
their own.
When several villages are united in a single complete community,
large enough to be nearly or quite self-sufficing, the state comes into
existence, originating in the bare needs of life, and continuing in exist-
ence for the sake of a good life. And therefore, if the earlier forms of
society are natural, so is the state, for it is the end of them, and the
nature of a thing is its end. For what each thing is when fully developed,
we call its nature, whether we are speaking of a man, a horse, or a
family. Besides, the final cause and end of a thing is the best, and to be
self-sufficing is the end and the best.
Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man
is by nature a political animal. And he who by nature and not by mere
accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity; he is
like the
“Tribeless, lawless, hearthless one,”
whom Homer denounces—the natural outcast is forthwith a lover of
war; he may be compared to an isolated piece at draughts.
Now, that man is more of a political animal than bees or any other
gregarious animals is evident. Nature, as we often say, makes nothing in
vain, and man is the only animal whom she has endowed with the gift of
speech. And whereas mere voice is but an indication of pleasure or pain,
and is therefore found in other animals (for their nature attains to the
perception of pleasure and pain and the intimation of them to one an-
other, and no further), the power of speech is intended to set forth the
expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the un-
just. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the a**ociation of
living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state.
Further, the state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the
individual, since the whole is of necessity prior to the part; for example,
if the whole body be destroyed, there will be no foot or hand, except in
an equivocal sense, as we might speak of a stone hand; for when de-
stroyed the hand will be no better than that. But things are defined by
their working and power; and we ought not to say that they are the same
when they no longer have their proper quality, but only that they have
the same name. The proof that the state is a creation of nature and prior
to the individual is that the individual, when isolated, is not self-suffic-
ing; and therefore he is like a part in relation to the whole. But he who is
unable to live in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for
himself, must be either a beast or a god: he is no part of a state. A social
instinct is implanted in all men by nature, and yet he who first founded
the state was the greatest of benefactors. For man, when perfected, is
the best of animals, but, when separated from law and justice, he is the
worst of all; since armed injustice is the more dangerous, and he is
equipped at birth with arms, meant to be used by intelligence and virtue,
which he may use for the worst ends. Wherefore, if he have not virtue,
he is the most unholy and the most savage of animals, and the most full
of lust and gluttony. But justice is the bond of men in states, for the
administration of justice, which is the determination of what is just, is
the principle of order in political society.
Part III
Seeing then that the state is made up of households, before speaking of
the state we must speak of the management of the household. The parts
of household management correspond to the persons who compose the
household, and a complete household consists of slaves and freemen.
Now we should begin by examining everything in its fewest possible
elements; and the first and fewest possible parts of a family are master
and slave, husband and wife, father and children. We have therefore to
consider what each of these three relations is and ought to be: I mean the
relation of master and servant, the marriage relation (the conjunction of
man and wife has no name of its own), and thirdly, the procreative rela-
tion (this also has no proper name). And there is another element of a
household, the so-called art of getting wealth, which, according to some,
is identical with household management, according to others, a princi-pal part of it; the nature of this art will also have to be considered by us.
Let us first speak of master and slave, looking to the needs of prac-
tical life and also seeking to attain some better theory of their relation
than exists at present. For some are of opinion that the rule of a master
is a science, and that the management of a household, and the master-
ship of slaves, and the political and royal rule, as I was saying at the
outset, are all the same. Others affirm that the rule of a master over
slaves is contrary to nature, and that the distinction between slave and
freeman exists by law only, and not by nature; and being an interference
with nature is therefore unjust.
Part IV
Property is a part of the household, and the art of acquiring property is
a part of the art of managing the household; for no man can live well, or
indeed live at all, unless he be provided with necessaries. And as in the
arts which have a definite sphere the workers must have their own proper
instruments for the accomplishment of their work, so it is in the man-
agement of a household. Now instruments are of various sorts; some are
living, others lifeless; in the rudder, the pilot of a ship has a lifeless, in
the look-out man, a living instrument; for in the arts the servant is a kind
of instrument. Thus, too, a possession is an instrument for maintaining
life. And so, in the arrangement of the family, a slave is a living posses-
sion, and property a number of such instruments; and the servant is
himself an instrument which takes precedence of all other instruments.
For if every instrument could accomplish its own work, obeying or an-
ticipating the will of others, like the statues of Daedalus, or the tripods
of Hephaestus, which, says the poet,
“of their own accord entered the a**embly of the Gods;”
if, in like manner, the shuttle would weave and the plectrum touch the
lyre without a hand to guide them, chief workmen would not want ser-
vants, nor masters slaves. Here, however, another distinction must be
drawn; the instruments commonly so called are instruments of produc-
tion, whilst a possession is an instrument of action. The shuttle, for
example, is not only of use; but something else is made by it, whereas of
a garment or of a bed there is only the use. Further, as production and
action are different in kind, and both require instruments, the instru-
ments which they employ must likewise differ in kind. But life is action and not production, and therefore the slave is the minister of action.
Again, a possession is spoken of as a part is spoken of; for the part is
not only a part of something else, but wholly belongs to it; and this is
also true of a possession. The master is only the master of the slave; he
does not belong to him, whereas the slave is not only the slave of his
master, but wholly belongs to him. Hence we see what is the nature and
office of a slave; he who is by nature not his own but another's man, is
by nature a slave; and he may be said to be another's man who, being a
human being, is also a possession. And a possession may be defined as
an instrument of action, separable from the possessor.
Part V
But is there any one thus intended by nature to be a slave, and for whom
such a condition is expedient and right, or rather is not all slavery a
violation of nature?
There is no difficulty in answering this question, on grounds both of
reason and of fact. For that some should rule and others be ruled is a
thing not only necessary, but expedient; from the hour of their birth,
some are marked out for subjection, others for rule.
And there are many kinds both of rulers and subjects (and that rule
is the better which is exercised over better subjects—for example, to
rule over men is better than to rule over wild beasts; for the work is
better which is executed by better workmen, and where one man rules
and another is ruled, they may be said to have a work); for in all things
which form a composite whole and which are made up of parts, whether
continuous or discrete, a distinction between the ruling and the subject
element comes to fight. Such a duality exists in living creatures, but not
in them only; it originates in the constitution of the universe; even in
things which have no life there is a ruling principle, as in a musical
mode. But we are wandering from the subject. We will therefore restrict
ourselves to the living creature, which, in the first place, consists of soul
and body: and of these two, the one is by nature the ruler, and the other
the subject. But then we must look for the intentions of nature in things
which retain their nature, and not in things which are corrupted. And
therefore we must study the man who is in the most perfect state both of
body and soul, for in him we shall see the true relation of the two;
although in bad or corrupted natures the body will often appear to rule
over the soul, because they are in an evil and unnatural condition. At all
events we may firstly observe in living creatures both a despotical and a constitutional rule; for the soul rules the body with a despotical rule,
whereas the intellect rules the appetites with a constitutional and royal
rule. And it is clear that the rule of the soul over the body, and of the
mind and the rational element over the pa**ionate, is natural and expe-
dient; whereas the equality of the two or the rule of the inferior is always
hurtful. The same holds good of animals in relation to men; for tame
animals have a better nature than wild, and all tame animals are better
off when they are ruled by man; for then they are preserved. Again, the
male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules,
and the other is ruled; this principle, of necessity, extends to all man-
kind.
Where then there is such a difference as that between soul and body,
or between men and animals (as in the case of those whose business is to
use their body, and who can do nothing better), the lower sort are by
nature slaves, and it is better for them as for all inferiors that they should
be under the rule of a master. For he who can be, and therefore is,
another's and he who participates in rational principle enough to appre-
hend, but not to have, such a principle, is a slave by nature. Whereas the
lower animals cannot even apprehend a principle; they obey their in-
stincts. And indeed the use made of slaves and of tame animals is not
very different; for both with their bodies minister to the needs of life.
Nature would like to distinguish between the bodies of freemen and
slaves, making the one strong for servile labor, the other upright, and
although useless for such services, useful for political life in the arts
both of war and peace. But the opposite often happens—that some have
the souls and others have the bodies of freemen. And doubtless if men
differed from one another in the mere forms of their bodies as much as
the statues of the Gods do from men, all would acknowledge that the
inferior cla** should be slaves of the superior. And if this is true of the
body, how much more just that a similar distinction should exist in the
soul? but the beauty of the body is seen, whereas the beauty of the soul
is not seen. It is clear, then, that some men are by nature free, and others
slaves, and that for these latter slavery is both expedient and right.
Part VI
But that those who take the opposite view have in a certain way right on
their side, may be easily seen. For the words slavery and slave are used
in two senses. There is a slave or slavery by law as well as by nature.
The law of which I speak is a sort of convention—the law by which whatever is taken in war is supposed to belong to the victors. But this
right many jurists impeach, as they would an orator who brought for-
ward an unconstitutional measure: they detest the notion that, because
one man has the power of doing violence and is superior in brute strength,
another shall be his slave and subject. Even among philosophers there is
a difference of opinion. The origin of the dispute, and what makes the
views invade each other's territory, is as follows: in some sense virtue,
when furnished with means, has actually the greatest power of exercis-
ing force; and as superior power is only found where there is superior
excellence of some kind, power seems to imply virtue, and the dispute to
be simply one about justice (for it is due to one party identifying justice
with goodwill while the other identifies it with the mere rule of the stron-
ger). If these views are thus set out separately, the other views have no
force or plausibility against the view that the superior in virtue ought to
rule, or be master. Others, clinging, as they think, simply to a principle
of justice (for law and custom are a sort of justice), a**ume that slavery
in accordance with the custom of war is justified by law, but at the same
moment they deny this. For what if the cause of the war be unjust? And
again, no one would ever say he is a slave who is unworthy to be a slave.
Were this the case, men of the highest rank would be slaves and the
children of slaves if they or their parents chance to have been taken
captive and sold. Wherefore Hellenes do not like to call Hellenes slaves,
but confine the term to barbarians. Yet, in using this language, they
really mean the natural slave of whom we spoke at first; for it must be
admitted that some are slaves everywhere, others nowhere. The same
principle applies to nobility. Hellenes regard themselves as noble every-
where, and not only in their own country, but they deem the barbarians
noble only when at home, thereby implying that there are two sorts of
nobility and freedom, the one absolute, the other relative. The Helen of
Theodectes says:
“Who would presume to call me servant who am on both sides sprung
from the stem of the Gods?”
What does this mean but that they distinguish freedom and slavery,
noble and humble birth, by the two principles of good and evil? They
think that as men and animals beget men and animals, so from good men
a good man springs. But this is what nature, though she may intend it,
cannot always accomplish.
We see then that there is some foundation for this difference of opin-
ion, and that all are not either slaves by nature or freemen by nature, and
also that there is in some cases a marked distinction between the two
cla**es, rendering it expedient and right for the one to be slaves and the
others to be masters: the one practicing obedience, the others exercising
the authority and lordship which nature intended them to have. The abuse
of this authority is injurious to both; for the interests of part and whole,
of body and soul, are the same, and the slave is a part of the master, a
living but separated part of his bodily frame. Hence, where the relation
of master and slave between them is natural they are friends and have a
common interest, but where it rests merely on law and force the reverse
is true.
Part VII
The previous remarks are quite enough to show that the rule of a
master is not a constitutional rule, and that all the different kinds of rule
are not, as some affirm, the same with each other. For there is one rule
exercised over subjects who are by nature free, another over subjects
who are by nature slaves. The rule of a household is a monarchy, for
every house is under one head: whereas constitutional rule is a govern-
ment of freemen and equals. The master is not called a master because
he has science, but because he is of a certain character, and the same
remark applies to the slave and the freeman. Still there may be a science
for the master and science for the slave. The science of the slave would
be such as the man of Syracuse taught, who made money by instructing
slaves in their ordinary duties. And such a knowledge may be carried
further, so as to include cookery and similar menial arts. For some du-
ties are of the more necessary, others of the more honorable sort; as the
proverb says, ‘slave before slave, master before master.' But all such
branches of knowledge are servile. There is likewise a science of the
master, which teaches the use of slaves; for the master as such is con-
cerned, not with the acquisition, but with the use of them. Yet this so-
called science is not anything great or wonderful; for the master need
only know how to order that which the slave must know how to execute.
Hence those who are in a position which places them above toil have
stewards who attend to their households while they occupy themselves
with philosophy or with politics. But the art of acquiring slaves, I mean
of justly acquiring them, differs both from the art of the master and the
art of the slave, being a species of hunting or war. Enough of the distinc-tion between master and slave.
Part VIII
Let us now inquire into property generally, and into the art of getting
wealth, in accordance with our usual method, for a slave has been shown
to be a part of property. The first question is whether the art of getting
wealth is the same with the art of managing a household or a part of it,
or instrumental to it; and if the last, whether in the way that the art of
making shuttles is instrumental to the art of weaving, or in the way that
the casting of bronze is instrumental to the art of the statuary, for they
are not instrumental in the same way, but the one provides tools and the
other material; and by material I mean the substratum out of which any
work is made; thus wool is the material of the weaver, bronze of the
statuary. Now it is easy to see that the art of household management is
not identical with the art of getting wealth, for the one uses the material
which the other provides. For the art which uses household stores can
be no other than the art of household management. There is, however, a
doubt whether the art of getting wealth is a part of household manage-
ment or a distinct art. If the getter of wealth has to consider whence
wealth and property can be procured, but there are many sorts of prop-
erty and riches, then are husbandry, and the care and provision of food
in general, parts of the wealth-getting art or distinct arts? Again, there
are many sorts of food, and therefore there are many kinds of lives both
of animals and men; they must all have food, and the differences in their
food have made differences in their ways of life. For of beasts, some are
gregarious, others are solitary; they live in the way which is best adapted
to sustain them, accordingly as they are carnivorous or herbivorous or
omnivorous: and their habits are determined for them by nature in such
a manner that they may obtain with greater facility the food of their
choice. But, as different species have different tastes, the same things
are not naturally pleasant to all of them; and therefore the lives of car-
nivorous or herbivorous animals further differ among themselves. In the
lives of men too there is a great difference. The laziest are shepherds,
who lead an idle life, and get their subsistence without trouble from
tame animals; their flocks having to wander from place to place in search
of pasture, they are compelled to follow them, cultivating a sort of liv-
ing farm. Others support themselves by hunting, which is of different
kinds. Some, for example, are brigands, others, who dwell near lakes or
marshes or rivers or a sea in which there are fish, are fishermen, and others live by the pursuit of birds or wild beasts. The greater number
obtain a living from the cultivated fruits of the soil. Such are the modes
of subsistence which prevail among those whose industry springs up of
itself, and whose food is not acquired by exchange and retail trade—
there is the shepherd, the husbandman, the brigand, the fisherman, the
hunter. Some gain a comfortable maintenance out of two employments,
eking out the deficiencies of one of them by another: thus the life of a
shepherd may be combined with that of a brigand, the life of a farmer
with that of a hunter. Other modes of life are similarly combined in any
way which the needs of men may require. Property, in the sense of a
bare livelihood, seems to be given by nature herself to all, both when
they are first born, and when they are grown up. For some animals bring
forth, together with their offspring, so much food as will last until they
are able to supply themselves; of this the vermiparous or oviparous
animals are an instance; and the viviparous animals have up to a certain
time a supply of food for their young in themselves, which is called
milk. In like manner we may infer that, after the birth of animals, plants
exist for their sake, and that the other animals exist for the sake of man,
the tame for use and food, the wild, if not all at least the greater part of
them, for food, and for the provision of clothing and various instru-
ments. Now if nature makes nothing incomplete, and nothing in vain,
the inference must be that she has made all animals for the sake of man.
And so, in one point of view, the art of war is a natural art of acquisi-
tion, for the art of acquisition includes hunting, an art which we ought
to practice against wild beasts, and against men who, though intended
by nature to be governed, will not submit; for war of such a kind is
naturally just.
Of the art of acquisition then there is one kind which by nature is a
part of the management of a household, in so far as the art of household
management must either find ready to hand, or itself provide, such things
necessary to life, and useful for the community of the family or state, as
can be stored. They are the elements of true riches; for the amount of
property which is needed for a good life is not unlimited, although Solon
in one of his poems says that
“No bound to riches has been fixed for man.”
But there is a boundary fixed, just as there is in the other arts; for
the instruments of any art are never unlimited, either in number or size, and riches may be defined as a number of instruments to be used in a
household or in a state. And so we see that there is a natural art of
acquisition which is practiced by managers of households and by states-
men, and what is the reason of this.
Part IX
There is another variety of the art of acquisition which is commonly and
rightly called an art of wealth-getting, and has in fact suggested the
notion that riches and property have no limit. Being nearly connected
with the preceding, it is often identified with it. But though they are not
very different, neither are they the same. The kind already described is
given by nature, the other is gained by experience and art.
Let us begin our discussion of the question with the following con-
siderations:
Of everything which we possess there are two uses: both belong to
the thing as such, but not in the same manner, for one is the proper, and
the other the improper or secondary use of it. For example, a shoe is
used for wear, and is used for exchange; both are uses of the shoe. He
who gives a shoe in exchange for money or food to him who wants one,
does indeed use the shoe as a shoe, but this is not its proper or primary
purpose, for a shoe is not made to be an object of barter. The same may
be said of all possessions, for the art of exchange extends to all of them,
and it arises at first from what is natural, from the circumstance that
some have too little, others too much. Hence we may infer that retail
trade is not a natural part of the art of getting wealth; had it been so,
men would have ceased to exchange when they had enough. In the first
community, indeed, which is the family, this art is obviously of no use,
but it begins to be useful when the society increases. For the members of
the family originally had all things in common; later, when the family
divided into parts, the parts shared in many things, and different parts in
different things, which they had to give in exchange for what they wanted,
a kind of barter which is still practiced among barbarous nations who
exchange with one another the necessaries of life and nothing more;
giving and receiving wine, for example, in exchange for coin, and the
like. This sort of barter is not part of the wealth-getting art and is not
contrary to nature, but is needed for the satisfaction of men's natural
wants. The other or more complex form of exchange grew, as might
have been inferred, out of the simpler. When the inhabitants of one country
became more dependent on those of another, and they imported what they needed, and exported what they had too much of, money necessar-
ily came into use. For the various necessaries of life are not easily car-
ried about, and hence men agreed to employ in their dealings with each
other something which was intrinsically useful and easily applicable to
the purposes of life, for example, iron, silver, and the like. Of this the
value was at first measured simply by size and weight, but in process of
time they put a stamp upon it, to save the trouble of weighing and to
mark the value.
When the use of coin had once been discovered, out of the barter of
necessary articles arose the other art of wealth getting, namely, retail
trade; which was at first probably a simple matter, but became more
complicated as soon as men learned by experience whence and by what
exchanges the greatest profit might be made. Originating in the use of
coin, the art of getting wealth is generally thought to be chiefly con-
cerned with it, and to be the art which produces riches and wealth; hav-
ing to consider how they may be accumulated. Indeed, riches is as-
sumed by many to be only a quantity of coin, because the arts of getting
wealth and retail trade are concerned with coin. Others maintain that
coined money is a mere sham, a thing not natural, but conventional
only, because, if the users substitute another commodity for it, it is worth-
less, and because it is not useful as a means to any of the necessities of
life, and, indeed, he who is rich in coin may often be in want of neces-
sary food. But how can that be wealth of which a man may have a great
abundance and yet perish with hunger, like Midas in the fable, whose
insatiable prayer turned everything that was set before him into gold?
Hence men seek after a better notion of riches and of the art of
getting wealth than the mere acquisition of coin, and they are right. For
natural riches and the natural art of wealth-getting are a different thing;
in their true form they are part of the management of a household; whereas
retail trade is the art of producing wealth, not in every way, but by
exchange. And it is thought to be concerned with coin; for coin is the
unit of exchange and the measure or limit of it. And there is no bound to
the riches which spring from this art of wealth getting. As in the art of
medicine there is no limit to the pursuit of health, and as in the other arts
there is no limit to the pursuit of their several ends, for they aim at
accomplishing their ends to the uttermost (but of the means there is a
limit, for the end is always the limit), so, too, in this art of wealth-
getting there is no limit of the end, which is riches of the spurious kind,
and the acquisition of wealth. But the art of wealth-getting which con-sists in household management, on the other hand, has a limit; the un-
limited acquisition of wealth is not its business. And, therefore, in one
point of view, all riches must have a limit; nevertheless, as a matter of
fact, we find the opposite to be the case; for all getters of wealth in-
crease their hoard of coin without limit. The source of the confusion is
the near connection between the two kinds of wealth-getting; in either,
the instrument is the same, although the use is different, and so they
pa** into one another; for each is a use of the same property, but with a
difference: accumulation is the end in the one case, but there is a further
end in the other. Hence some persons are led to believe that getting
wealth is the object of household management, and the whole idea of
their lives is that they ought either to increase their money without limit,
or at any rate not to lose it. The origin of this disposition in men is that
they are intent upon living only, and not upon living well; and, as their
desires are unlimited they also desire that the means of gratifying them
should be without limit. Those who do aim at a good life seek the means
of obtaining bodily pleasures; and, since the enjoyment of these appears
to depend on property, they are absorbed in getting wealth: and so there
arises the second species of wealth-getting. For, as their enjoyment is in
excess, they seek an art which produces the excess of enjoyment; and, if
they are not able to supply their pleasures by the art of getting wealth,
they try other arts, using in turn every faculty in a manner contrary to
nature. The quality of courage, for example, is not intended to make
wealth, but to inspire confidence; neither is this the aim of the general's
or of the physician's art; but the one aims at victory and the other at
health. Nevertheless, some men turn every quality or art into a means of
getting wealth; this they conceive to be the end, and to the promotion of
the end they think all things must contribute.
Thus, then, we have considered the art of wealth-getting which is
unnecessary, and why men want it; and also the necessary art of wealth-
getting, which we have seen to be different from the other, and to be a
natural part of the art of managing a household, concerned with the
provision of food, not, however, like the former kind, unlimited, but
having a limit.
Part X
And we have found the answer to our original question, Whether the art
of getting wealth is the business of the manager of a household and of
the statesman or not their business? viz., that wealth is presupposed by them. For as political science does not make men, but takes them from
nature and uses them, so too nature provides them with earth or sea or
the like as a source of food. At this stage begins the duty of the manager
of a household, who has to order the things which nature supplies; he
may be compared to the weaver who has not to make but to use wool,
and to know, too, what sort of wool is good and serviceable or bad and
unserviceable. Were this otherwise, it would be difficult to see why the
art of getting wealth is a part of the management of a household and the
art of medicine not; for surely the members of a household must have
health just as they must have life or any other necessary. The answer is
that as from one point of view the master of the house and the ruler of
the state have to consider about health, from another point of view not
they but the physician; so in one way the art of household management,
in another way the subordinate art, has to consider about wealth. But,
strictly speaking, as I have already said, the means of life must be pro-
vided beforehand by nature; for the business of nature is to furnish food
to that which is born, and the food of the offspring is always what re-
mains over of that from which it is produced. Wherefore the art of get-
ting wealth out of fruits and animals is always natural.
There are two sorts of wealth-getting, as I have said; one is a part of
household management, the other is retail trade: the former necessary
and honorable, while that which consists in exchange is justly censured;
for it is unnatural, and a mode by which men gain from one another. The
most hated sort, and with the greatest reason, is usury, which makes a
gain out of money itself, and not from the natural object of it. For money
was intended to be used in exchange, but not to increase at interest. And
this term interest, which means the birth of money from money, is ap-
plied to the breeding of money because the offspring resembles the par-
ent. Wherefore of an modes of getting wealth this is the most unnatural.
Part XI
Enough has been said about the theory of wealth-getting; we will now
proceed to the practical part. The discussion of such matters is not un-
worthy of philosophy, but to be engaged in them practically is illiberal
and irksome. The useful parts of wealth-getting are, first, the knowl-
edge of livestock—which are most profitable, and where, and how—as,
for example, what sort of horses or sheep or oxen or any other animals
are most likely to give a return. A man ought to know which of these
pay better than others, and which pay best in particular places, for some do better in one place and some in another. Secondly, husbandry, which
may be either tillage or planting, and the keeping of bees and of fish, or
fowl, or of any animals which may be useful to man. These are the
divisions of the true or proper art of wealth-getting and come first. Of
the other, which consists in exchange, the first and most important divi-
sion is commerce (of which there are three kinds—the provision of a
ship, the conveyance of goods, exposure for sale—these again differing
as they are safer or more profitable), the second is usury, the third,
service for hire—of this, one kind is employed in the mechanical arts,
the other in unsk**ed and bodily labor. There is still a third sort of wealth
getting intermediate between this and the first or natural mode which is
partly natural, but is also concerned with exchange, viz., the industries
that make their profit from the earth, and from things growing from the
earth which, although they bear no fruit, are nevertheless profitable; for
example, the cutting of timber and all mining. The art of mining, by
which minerals are obtained, itself has many branches, for there are
various kinds of things dug out of the earth. Of the several divisions of
wealth-getting I now speak generally; a minute consideration of them
might be useful in practice, but it would be tiresome to dwell upon them
at greater length now.
Those occupations are most truly arts in which there is the least
element of chance; they are the meanest in which the body is most dete-
riorated, the most servile in which there is the greatest use of the body,
and the most illiberal in which there is the least need of excellence.
Works have been written upon these subjects by various persons;
for example, by Chares the Parian, and Apollodorus the Lemnian, who
have treated of Tillage and Planting, while others have treated of other
branches; any one who cares for such matters may refer to their writ-
ings. It would be well also to collect the scattered stories of the ways in
which individuals have succeeded in ama**ing a fortune; for all this is
useful to persons who value the art of getting wealth. There is the anec-
dote of Thales the Milesian and his financial device, which involves a
principle of universal application, but is attributed to him on account of
his reputation for wisdom. He was reproached for his poverty, which
was supposed to show that philosophy was of no use. According to the
story, he knew by his sk** in the stars while it was yet winter that there
would be a great harvest of olives in the coming year; so, having a little
money, he gave deposits for the use of all the olive-presses in Chios and
Miletus, which he hired at a low price because no one bid against him.
When the harvest-time came, and many were wanted all at once and of
a sudden, he let them out at any rate which he pleased, and made a
quantity of money. Thus he showed the world that philosophers can
easily be rich if they like, but that their ambition is of another sort. He is
supposed to have given a striking proof of his wisdom, but, as I was
saying, his device for getting wealth is of universal application, and is
nothing but the creation of a monopoly. It is an art often practiced by
cities when they are want of money; they make a monopoly of provi-
sions.
There was a man of Sicily, who, having money deposited with him,
bought up an the iron from the iron mines; afterwards, when the mer-
chants from their various markets came to buy, he was the only seller,
and without much increasing the price he gained 200 per cent. Which
when Dionysius heard, he told him that he might take away his money,
but that he must not remain at Syracuse, for he thought that the man had
discovered a way of making money which was injurious to his own
interests. He made the same discovery as Thales; they both contrived to
create a monopoly for themselves. And statesmen as well ought to know
these things; for a state is often as much in want of money and of such
devices for obtaining it as a household, or even more so; hence some
public men devote themselves entirely to finance.
Part XII
Of household management we have seen that there are three parts—one
is the rule of a master over slaves, which has been discussed already,
another of a father, and the third of a husband. A husband and father,
we saw, rules over wife and children, both free, but the rule differs, the
rule over his children being a royal, over his wife a constitutional rule.
For although there may be exceptions to the order of nature, the male is
by nature fitter for command than the female, just as the elder and full-
grown is superior to the younger and more immature. But in most con-
stitutional states the citizens rule and are ruled by turns, for the idea of
a constitutional state implies that the natures of the citizens are equal,
and do not differ at all. Nevertheless, when one rules and the other is
ruled we endeavor to create a difference of outward forms and names
and titles of respect, which may be illustrated by the saying of Amasis
about his foot-pan. The relation of the male to the female is of this kind,
but there the inequality is permanent. The rule of a father over his chil-
dren is royal, for he rules by virtue both of love and of the respect due to age, exercising a kind of royal power. And therefore Homer has appro-
priately called Zeus ‘father of Gods and men,' because he is the king of
them all. For a king is the natural superior of his subjects, but he should
be of the same kin or kind with them, and such is the relation of elder
and younger, of father and son.
Part XIII
Thus it is clear that household management attends more to men than to
the acquisition of inanimate things, and to human excellence more than
to the excellence of property which we call wealth, and to the virtue of
freemen more than to the virtue of slaves. A question may indeed be
raised, whether there is any excellence at all in a slave beyond and higher
than merely instrumental and ministerial qualities—whether he can have
the virtues of temperance, courage, justice, and the like; or whether
slaves possess only bodily and ministerial qualities. And, whichever
way we answer the question, a difficulty arises; for, if they have virtue,
in what will they differ from freemen? On the other hand, since they are
men and share in rational principle, it seems absurd to say that they
have no virtue. A similar question may be raised about women and
children, whether they too have virtues: ought a woman to be temperate
and brave and just, and is a child to be called temperate, and intemper-
ate, or note So in general we may ask about the natural ruler, and the
natural subject, whether they have the same or different virtues. For if a
noble nature is equally required in both, why should one of them always
rule, and the other always be ruled? Nor can we say that this is a ques-
tion of degree, for the difference between ruler and subject is a differ-
ence of kind, which the difference of more and less never is. Yet how
strange is the supposition that the one ought, and that the other ought
not, to have virtue! For if the ruler is intemperate and unjust, how can he
rule well? If the subject, how can he obey well? If he be licentious and
cowardly, he will certainly not do his duty. It is evident, therefore, that
both of them must have a share of virtue, but varying as natural subjects
also vary among themselves. Here the very constitution of the soul has
shown us the way; in it one part naturally rules, and the other is subject,
and the virtue of the ruler we in maintain to be different from that of the
subject; the one being the virtue of the rational, and the other of the
irrational part. Now, it is obvious that the same principle applies gener-
ally, and therefore almost all things rule and are ruled according to na-
ture. But the kind of rule differs; the freeman rules over the slave after another manner from that in which the male rules over the female, or the
man over the child; although the parts of the soul are present in an of
them, they are present in different degrees. For the slave has no delib-
erative faculty at all; the woman has, but it is without authority, and the
child has, but it is immature. So it must necessarily be supposed to be
with the moral virtues also; all should partake of them, but only in such
manner and degree as is required by each for the fulfillment of his duty.
Hence the ruler ought to have moral virtue in perfection, for his func-
tion, taken absolutely, demands a master artificer, and rational principle
is such an artificer; the subjects, oil the other hand, require only that
measure of virtue which is proper to each of them. Clearly, then, moral
virtue belongs to all of them; but the temperance of a man and of a
woman, or the courage and justice of a man and of a woman, are not, as
Socrates maintained, the same; the courage of a man is shown in com-
manding, of a woman in obeying. And this holds of all other virtues, as
will be more clearly seen if we look at them in detail, for those who say
generally that virtue consists in a good disposition of the soul, or in
doing rightly, or the like, only deceive themselves. Far better than such
definitions is their mode of speaking, who, like Gorgias, enumerate the
virtues. All cla**es must be deemed to have their special attributes; as
the poet says of women,
“Silence is a woman's glory,”
but this is not equally the glory of man. The child is imperfect, and
therefore obviously his virtue is not relative to himself alone, but to the
perfect man and to his teacher, and in like manner the virtue of the slave
is relative to a master. Now we determined that a slave is useful for the
wants of life, and therefore he will obviously require only so much vir-
tue as will prevent him from failing in his duty through cowardice or
lack of self-control. Some one will ask whether, if what we are saying is
true, virtue will not be required also in the artisans, for they often fail in
their work through the lack of self control? But is there not a great
difference in the two cases? For the slave shares in his master's life; the
artisan is less closely connected with him, and only attains excellence in
proportion as he becomes a slave. The meaner sort of mechanic has a
special and separate slavery; and whereas the slave exists by nature, not
so the shoemaker or other artisan. It is manifest, then, that the master
ought to be the source of such excellence in the slave, and not a mere possessor of the art of mastership which trains the slave in his duties.
Wherefore they are mistaken who forbid us to converse with slaves and
say that we should employ command only, for slaves stand even more in
need of admonition than children.
So much for this subject; the relations of husband and wife, parent
and child, their several virtues, what in their intercourse with one an-
other is good, and what is evil, and how we may pursue the good and
good and escape the evil, will have to be discussed when we speak of the
different forms of government. For, inasmuch as every family is a part
of a state, and these relationships are the parts of a family, and the virtue
of the part must have regard to the virtue of the whole, women and
children must be trained by education with an eye to the constitution, if
the virtues of either of them are supposed to make any difference in the
virtues of the state. And they must make a difference: for the children
grow up to be citizens, and half the free persons in a state are women.
Of these matters, enough has been said; of what remains, let us
speak at another time. Regarding, then, our present inquiry as complete,
we will make a new beginning. And, first, let us examine the various
theories of a perfect state.